 ▲ Bitcoin (BTC), submarine cables/ChatGPT-generated image |
A study has found that Bitcoin’s key strength of decentralization is tied to the vulnerability of submarine cables, the physical infrastructure of the internet, meaning that attacks on specific routes could paralyze most of the network.
According to cryptocurrency media outlet U.Today on March 6 (local time), the Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance (CCAF) recently warned in a report that targeted attacks on major submarine cables and routing providers could theoretically disable a significant portion of Bitcoin’s public nodes. CCAF researchers Wenbin Wu and Alexander Neumueller presented these findings in what they described as the first long-term study on the resilience of Bitcoin’s physical layer.
The research team used a cascading model to simulate the impact on Bitcoin nodes when international submarine cables are severed. The study found that random cable failures pose relatively limited risk, as network fragmentation would occur only if 72% to 92% of all international cables were destroyed. However, highly coordinated targeted attacks present a different level of threat. If attackers were to strike specific high-importance links, such as 11 key cables connecting Europe and North America, destroying just 20% of cables could incapacitate network functionality.
Wu and Neumueller also analyzed that targeting the top five autonomous system networks (ASNs) hosting nodes—Hetzner, OVH, Comcast, Amazon, and Google Cloud—could eliminate 95% of the network’s clean routing capacity. This suggests that while Bitcoin’s logical software network appears decentralized, it in fact relies on highly centralized physical infrastructure. “Bitcoin’s decentralization is ultimately anchored in the reality of the physical internet structure,” Wu noted.
Interestingly, the adoption of the anonymous network Tor has actually strengthened Bitcoin’s physical resilience. Tor-based nodes, which numbered only in the dozens in 2014, surged to account for 64% of the entire network by 2025. Data shows that Tor relay bandwidth is concentrated in countries with abundant submarine cable and terrestrial fiber infrastructure, such as Germany, France, and the Netherlands. By routing Bitcoin through these infrastructure-rich nations, nodes in countries with weaker connectivity can maintain network continuity under the protection of Europe’s robust physical infrastructure.
The Bitcoin network is currently developing technical countermeasures to overcome the limitations posed by the centralization of physical infrastructure. Enhancing resilience through auxiliary networks such as Tor, even under extreme scenarios like submarine cable attacks, highlights an important survival strategy for digital assets. The virtual asset market is focusing on strengthening security through long-term technological innovation aimed at reducing physical dependence, including diversifying internet infrastructure and leveraging satellite communications.
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